Playing the violin

Harmonics

Lightly touching the string with a fingertip at a harmonic node while bowing close to the bridge can create harmonics. Instead of the normal solid tone a wispy-sounding overtone note of a higher pitch is heard. Each node is at an integer division of the string, for example exactly half-way along the length of the string, or exactly one-third along the length of the string. The pitch produced in these two cases will be an octave higher in the case of halves, and an octave and a fifth higher in the case of the string vibrating in thirds. A responsive instrument will provide numerous possible harmonic nodes along the length of the string.

Harmonics are marked in music with a little circle above the note that determines the pitch of the harmonic. There are two types of harmonics: natural harmonics and artificial harmonics (also known as "false harmonics").

Artificial harmonics are more difficult to produce than the natural harmonics described above. Stopping a note on one string, for example first finger "E" on the D string, and having another finger just touching the string a fourth higher, in this case on the position of the note "A", produces the fourth harmonic of the "E," sounding a tone two octaves above the note that is stopped, in this case, E. Finger placement and pressure, as well as bow speed, pressure, and sounding point are all essential in getting the desired harmonic to sound.

The "harmonic finger" can also touch at a major third above the pressed note, or a fifth higher. These harmonics are less commonly used because they are more difficult to make sound well. In the case of the major third, the harmonic is higher in the overtone series, and does not speak as readily; in the case of the fifth, the stretch is greater than is comfortable for many violinists. The sounding pitch of the major third harmonic is two octaves and a major third above the lower note, and in the case of the fifth, it is an octave and a fifth above the lower note.

Traditional notation of artificial harmonics uses two notes on one stem: the lower note employs a round note-head representing where the string is strongly stopped with the first finger, and the upper note uses an open diamond note-head representing where the string is lightly touched with the fourth finger.

Harmonics are also rarely played in double stops, where both notes are harmonics.
Elaborate passages in artificial harmonics can be found in virtuoso violin literature, especially of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Playing the violin

Vibrato
Vibrato is a technique of the left hand and arm in which the pitch of a note varies in a pulsating rhythm. Mechanically, it is achieved by fingertip movements which alter the length of the vibrating string. There are several different styles of vibrato ranging from the use of just the fingers, to the use of the wrist or even the whole forearm. By employing these different techniques both the speed and amplitude of vibrato oscillations can be varied for musical effect.

Vibrato is often perceived to create a more emotional sound, and it is employed heavily in music of the Romantic era. The acoustic effect of vibrato has largely to do with adding interest and warmth to the sound, in the form of a shimmer created by the variations in projection of strongest sound. A well-made violin virtually points its sound pattern in different directions depending on slight variations in pitch.

Violinists oscillate backwards, or lower in pitch from the actual note when using vibrato, since aural perception favors the highest pitch in a varying sound. Vibrato does little if anything to disguise an out-of-tune note. Violin students, especially of beginner level, are taught to use it only on extended notes and or during points of emotional tension. Vibrato can be difficult to learn and may take a student several months, if not years, to master.

Playing the violin

Double stops and drones

Double stopping is when stopped notes are played on two adjacent strings, producing a two-note chord. This is more difficult than normal single-string playing, as fingers must be accurately placed on two strings simultaneously. Sometimes moving to a higher position is necessary for the left hand to be able to reach both notes at once. Double stopping is also used to mean playing on three or all four strings at once, although such practices are more properly called triple or quadruple stopping. Collectively, double, triple and quadruple stopping is called multiple stopping. Sounding an open string alongside a fingered note is another way to get a chord. While sometimes also called a double stop, it is more properly called a drone, as the drone note (the open string) may be sustained for a passage of different notes played on the adjacent string.

Playing the violin

Right hand and tone color
The right arm, hand, and bow are responsible for tone quality, rhythm, dynamics, articulation, and certain (but not all) changes in timbre. The bow is held in the right hand with the thumb bent underneath the frog to support it and the other fingers loosely touching the wood. The middle and ring fingers are usually wrapped around the frog, although in some cases (such as in baroque performance practice) the whole hand holds the stick above the frog. Holding the little finger curved and resting on the near facet of the octagonal shape of the stick, next to the facet on top of the stick, allows that finger to "unweight" the bow, using the thumb as a fulcrum.

Playing the violin

Left hand: producing pitch

While beginning violin students often rely on tapes placed on the fingerboard for correct placement of the left hand fingers, more experienced players place their fingers on the right spots from skill alone. To attain good intonation, violin players practice long hours to train the fingers to land in the right places, learning to hear when a note is in or out of tune, and cultivating the ability to correct the pitch rapidly and automatically as notes are being played. "Singing" the note mentally helps to land in the right spot. (In practice, intonation may be checked by sounding an adjacent open string, and listening for the interval between the two notes.) Although adjusting to the desired pitch after landing the finger is indeed possible, the amount of adjustment needed may be greatly reduced by training the fingers to fall properly in the first place. That said, a quote widely attributed to Jascha Heifetz goes something like: "I play as many wrong notes as anyone, but I fix them before most people can hear them."

The fingers are conventionally numbered 1 (index) to 4 (little finger). Especially in instructional editions of violin music, numbers over the notes may indicate which finger to use, with "O" indicating "open" string. The second finger may be either "low" or "high," corresponding to G or G♯ on the E string in first position. Similarly, the first finger may reach a half-step down for the F, and 3rd and 4th fingers reach up for A♯ and C respectively, as shown on the chart of Bornoff finger patterns on the right. (Pattern number 5 may be seen to be the same as pattern number 3, but a half step lower.)

The lower chart on the right shows the arrangement of notes reachable in first position. Note well: left hand finger placement is a matter of the ears and hand, not the eyes, that is, it has strong aural and tactile/kinesthetic components, with visual references being only marginally useful. Note also (not shown on this chart) that the spacing between note positions becomes closer as the fingers move "up" (in pitch) from the nut. The blue bars on the sides of the chart represent the usual possibilities for beginners' tape placements, at 1st, high 2nd, 3d (and 4th) fingers, or Bornoff pattern number

Playing the violin

Posture

It is possible to play the violin holding it in a variety of ways. Most players hold the lower bout of the instrument between the left shoulder and the jaw, often assisted by a semi-permanently attached chinrest and detachable shoulder rest. If it is held properly under the chin, the violinist can let go of the instrument with their hands and it will stay there firmly. Other common ways to hold the instrument include the seated Carnatic attitude, with the scroll resting on a foot, or the dancing-master's "kit" or "pochette" hold, along the forearm, by the lower margin of the rib cage.

The chinrest and shoulder rest accessories come in a great variety of styles and shapes, so each individual may find the combination that best suits their build and playing style. The search for the ideal combination can be a lengthy one in some cases. Whatever the equipment, the player will usually aim to maintain a balanced, natural, comfortable attitude, with the spine straight, especially the neck. Many violinists have a reddish mark on the neck, the so-called "violin hickey" (or "fiddler's hickey") from long-term pressure at that spot. The spot may be aggravated by an allergic reaction to nickel plating on the chinrest clamp hardware, or by microbes present on the instrument.[1]

Keeping the left wrist straight (or very nearly so) allows freedom of finger motion, and reduces the chance of repetitive strain injury. Collapsing the wrist to "support" the violin with the heel of the hand is an unfortunate habit that many young players fall into, and may take years of constant vigilance to overcome. The left forearm will be rather extremely supinated, and the left elbow drawn medially, or to the right. Players may sometimes be advised to bring their left elbow to where they can see it, so as to reach the lower strings more easily.

Raising either shoulder beyond a natural relaxed position is an easy habit to acquire without noticing it. Like any other unwarranted tension, it limits freedom of motion, and increases the risk of injury. It is useful to pay attention to the square formed by the right arm and bow, keeping it in a flat plane, and noticing which parts "lead" in string-crossing motions.

Playing the violin

Playing the violin entails holding the instrument under the chin, supported by the left shoulder (see below for variations of this posture). The strings are sounded either by drawing the bow across them (arco), or sometimes by plucking them (pizzicato). The left hand regulates the sounding length of the strings by stopping them against the fingerboard with the fingers, producing different notes.

Violin family

The Violin family (also called viola da braccio, or lira da braccio family) of musical instruments was developed in Italy in the sixteenth century.[1] The modern violin family consists of the violin, viola and cello, along with the double bass[2] and the octobass.

Instrument names in the ancestral violin family are all derived from the root viola, which is a derivative of the Medieval Latin word vitula (meaning "stringed instrument").[3] A violino (often abbreviated violin) is a "little viola", a violone is a "big viola" or a bass violin, and a violoncello (often abbreviated cello) is a "small violone" (or, literally, a "small big viola"). (The violone is not part of the modern violin family; its place is taken by the modern double bass.)
The instruments of the ancestral violin family may be descended in part from the lira da braccio and the medieval Byzantine lira [4].

Recent inventions

More recently, the Stroh violin used mechanical amplification similar to that of an unelectrified gramophone to boost sound volume. Some Stroh violins have a small "monitor" horn pointed at the player's ear, for audibility on a loud stage, where the main horn points at the audience.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries before electronic sound amplification became common, Stroh violins were used particularly in the recording studio. These violins with directional horns better suited the demands of the early recording industry's technology than the traditional violin.

Stroh was not the only person who made instruments of this class. Over twenty different inventions appear in the Patent books up to 1949. Often mistaken for Stroh and interchangeably known as being Stroh-viols, phono-fiddles, horn-violins or trumpet-violins, these other instruments have slipped into virtual obscurity.

The electric violin on the right was built by John Jordan in the early 21st century, and is tuned C G D A E. The history of the electric violin spans the entire 20th century. The success of electrical amplification, recording and playback devices brought about a comparatively swift end to the use of the Stroh violin in broadcast and recording.

History of the violin

The history of bowed string musical instrument in Europe goes back to the 9th century with the lira (or lūrā, Greek: λύρα) of the Byzantine Empire, a bowed instrument (held upright). The Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih (d. 911) of the 9th century, was the first to cite the bowed Byzantine lira as a typical instrument of the Byzantines and equivalent to the rabāb used in the Islamic Empires of that time [1]. The Byzantine lira spread through Europe westward and in the 11th and 12th centuries European writers use the terms fiddle and lira interchangeably when referring to bowed instruments (Encyclopedia Britannica. 2009). In the meantime rabāb was introduced to the Western Europe possibly through the Iberian Peninsula and both bowed instruments spread widely throughout Europe giving birth to various European bowed instruments.

Over the centuries that followed, Europe continued to have two distinct types of bowed instruments: one, relatively square-shaped, held in the arms, known with the Italian term lira da braccio (meaning viol for the arm) family; the other, with sloping shoulders and held between the knees, known with the Italian term lira da gamba (or viola da gamba, meaning viol for the leg) group [2]. During the Renaissance the gambas, were important and elegant instruments; they eventually lost ground to the louder (and originally less aristocratic) lira da braccio family of the modern violin.

The violin first emerged in northern Italy in the early 16th century especially from the Brescia area. Many archive documents testify that from 1585-95 Brescia was the cradle of a magnificent school of string players and makers, all called with the title of "maestro" of all the different sort of strings instruments of the Renaissance: viola da gamba (viols), violone, lyra, lyrone, violetta and viola da brazzo. So you can find "maestro delle viole" or "maestro delle lire" and later, at least from 1558, "maestro di far violini" that is master of violin making. From 1530 the word violin appear in brescian documents and spread all around north of Italy. While no instruments from the first decades of the century survive, there are several representations in paintings; some of the early instruments have only three strings and were of the violetta type. Most likely the first makers of violins borrowed from three different types of current instruments: the rebec, in use since the 10th century (itself derived from the Arab rebab), the Viola da Braccio (or Renaissance Fiddle), and the lira da braccio. The earliest explicit description of the instrument, including its tuning, was in the Epitome musical by Jambe de Fer, published in Lyon in 1556. By this time the violin had already begun to spread throughout Europe.

For the fact that documents shows that the Brescia school started half a century before Cremona, is debated if the first real violin was built by Andrea Amati, one of the famous luthiers, or lute-builders, in the first half of the 16th century by order of the Medici family[citation needed], who had asked for an instrument that could be used by street-musicians, but with the quality of a lute, which was a very popular instrument among the nobles in that time. Andrea was very probably a lute maker that was astonished of the brescian market of violins around 1550-60, and decided in that years to change trade. Adocument of 1636 (a letter to the secretary of Monteverdi) testify that the violin market was dominated by brescian until that time and Cremona was growing because all the brescain masters were killed by the 1630 plague. The violin has four strings usually tuned in fifths to E, A, D and G, from highest to lowest. Andrea Amati decided to use the technique of applying a mould to build the instrument by very precise measurements. In addition to that, he made the instrument body slightly vaulted. The violin immediately became very popular, both among street-musicians and the nobility, which is illustrated by the fact that Charles IX of France commissioned an extensive range of string instruments in the second half of the 16th century.[3]

The oldest confirmed surviving violin, dated inside, is the "Charles IX" by Andrea Amati, made in Cremona in 1564. The Metropolitan Museum of Art has an Amati violin that may be even older, possibly dating to 1558 but the date is very doubtful.[4] One of the best violin in the world is the renaissance carved, painted and gilted violin by Gasparo da Salò (1574 c.)owned first by Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria and from 1841 by Ole Bull one of the most outstanding virtuoso of the world, that used it for the astonishing power and beauty of the sound, in hundred of thousands of concert together with a Guarneri del Gesù. Perhaps the most famous, and certainly the most pristine is the "Le Messie" (also known as the 'Salabue') made by Antonio Stradivari in 1716, and never used. It is now located in the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford. The most famous violin makers, called luthiers, between the early 16th century and the 18th century included

Violin (disambiguation)

A violin is a bowed string instrument with four strings tuned in perfect fifths.
Violin may also refer to:

Animals
Violin beetle, species of ground beetles

Entertainment
Violin (novel), novel by Anne Rice
Nude with Violin, 1950s play by Noel Coward
Rothschild's Violin, opera by Veniamin Fleishman
The Red Violin, 1998 film by François Girard
The Steamroller and the Violin, 1960 short film by Andrei Tarkovsky

Locations
Pulau Biola, island off the coast of Singapore that is also known as Violin Island

Mathematics
Violin plot, box plot that illustrates probability density function

Medicine
VIOLIN, Vaccine Investigation and Online Information Network

Music

Instruments
Violin family, family of string based instruments developed in sixteenth century Italy
Violin octet, family of string based instruments developed in twentieth century United States of America
Bass violin,
Baritone violin, violin variant either one octave below convention or the third largest member of the violin octet family
Baroque violin, violin whose design is based in the baroque period
Electric violin, electrical variant of the standard violin
Five string violin, five string variant of the violin
Kit violin, small violin designed to fit in a pocket
Nail violin, instrument categorised as a friction idiophone
Stroh violin, violin that uses metal resonators or metal horns to amplify sounds
Tenor violin, instrument with a range between a cello and a viola

Albums and songs
Violin (album), album by violinst Vanessa-Mae
The Violin Player, album by violinist Vanessa-Mae
Sounding the New Violin, album of collected twentieth century violin works
Who Touched My Violin String, album by Zhou Bichang
1000 no Violin, single by The Blue Hearts
Love Is Like a Violin, single by Tír na nÓg
Violin, a children's song by alternative rock group They Might Be Giants on their album No!

Luthier

A luthier (pronounced /ˈljuːti.ər/) is someone who makes or repairs stringed instruments. The word luthier comes from the French word luth which means "lute".

The craft of lutherie is commonly divided into two main categories: stringed instruments that are plucked or strummed, and those that are bowed. Diverse places and cultures have given rise to numerous types of stringed instruments. The following lists provide examples of instruments in each category still in use today.[1]

Plucked or strummed instruments: autoharp, banjo, bouzouki, charango, cittern, appalachian dulcimer, guitar, harp, kantele, kithara, kora, koto, lute, theorbo, archlute, angelique, torban, kobza, bandura, lyre, pipa, mandolin, oud, shamisen, sitar, ukulele, and veena.

Bowed instruments: cello, crwth, double bass, erhu, fiddle, mouthbow, nyckelharpa, hurdy gurdy, rabab, rebec, sarangi, viol, viola, viola da braccio, viola d'amore, viola da gamba and violin.

Since bowed instruments require a bow, the second category includes a subtype known as an "archetier", a French word meaning one who makes bows.[2] While the division of luthiers into different categories may seem arbitrary, there are those who are passionate about the difference between these branches of the craft.

Contents
1 Plucked strings
1.1 Lutes
1.2 Guitars
2 Bowed strings
2.1 Luthiers
3 16th–19th centuries
4 20th century
5 Contemporary
6 Experimental luthiers
7 See also
8 References
9 Other sources
10 External links
10.1 Luthier manuals and books
//

Stradivarius

According to their reputation, the quality of their sound has defied attempts to explain or reproduce, though this belief is controversial. The name "Stradivarius" has also become a superlative applied to designate excellence. To be called "the Stradivari" of any field is to be deemed the finest there is.

Contents
1 Background
2 Reputation
3 Construction
4 Market value
5 Controversy over sound quality
6 Theories and reproduction attempts
7 Stradivari instruments
7.1 Violins
7.2 Violas
7.3 Celli
7.4 Guitars
7.5 Harps
7.6 Mandolins
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
//

Baroque violin

A baroque violin is, in common usage, any violin whose neck, fingerboard, bridge, and tailpiece are of the type used during the baroque period. Such an instrument may be an original built during the baroque and never changed to modern form; or a modern replica built as a baroque violin; or an older instrument which has been converted (or re-converted) to baroque form. "Baroque cellos" and "baroque violas" also exist, with similar modifications made to their form.

Following period practices, most baroque violinists use gut strings. This lends a certain purity and even at times earthiness to the sound. Baroque violinists commonly play their instruments without a chin rest or shoulder rest, as they had not yet been invented in the baroque period. The relaxed and natural baroque violin posture is quite different as compared with the more poised modern violin position. The baroque violin is usually positioned more in front of the player than the modern violin, with the strings often running perpendicular to the player's collarbone. This causes the player's bow arm to be positioned differently as well, facilitating articulations which would be difficult and less natural in a modern violin posture. Some players do not touch their chin to the instrument at all. However, when used, the player's chin is usually placed on the treble side of the tailpiece.

Other typical differences from the modern violin include: a smaller or longer (such as some french instruments like Médard) bass bar, a differently shaped bridge for most instruments (The modern bridge model is based on Guarnerius del Gesu model, so it could be used as a "baroque" bridge...) with all kind of thickness, a shorter fingerboard, a fuller neck, and the absence of fine tuners. The biggest difference between the modern and baroque violins is the tension of the strings and the pressure on the bridge. Most old Masterviolins have had new necks fitted - transplanting the original headstocks - that were slanted backwards so the strings would make a more acute angle on the bridge [this is not completely true: it depends on the maker. Some have a neck more inclined than others but usually the neck is shorter (not for some Nicolo Amati and German violin with a short distance between the upper edge and the bridge) so the angle is normally of 157,5°, like on modern instruments]. Some renaissance violins have their necks in line with the underside of the plate but most of baroque violin have the contact point between the string and the upper saddle in the same level as the underside of the plate which means that the neck isn't in the line with the underside of the plate (cf. Amati piccolo violin of the Shrine to music Museum. The necessary upward angle is achieved by a wedge-shaped fingerboard. Modern violin has a standard length but Baroque violin can be very small or very long: it depends on the maker. Baroque bows are also quite different in construction and how they are handled. The modern violin bow curves downward in the middle while the baroque bow will look straight or bent outwards under tension. The baroque bow is thinner near the tip which comes to an exaggerated point. The common myth that the so-called Bach-bow had a huge exaggerated arch shape so as to play all four strings, in the manner of a lyra or lira di braccio, at once remains under debate. [1]

Baroque violins have surged in popularity since the 1980s as part of the growing interest in authentic performance. Their renewed use reflects an attempt to rediscover the original style of violin playing in the baroque period. Many luthiers today are able to offer copies of baroque instruments as well as modern instruments. As is always the case with period instruments, merely having authentic equipment does not necessarily guarantee a persuasive performance. Typically, period instrument players receive extensive university training in the style and often use original treatises and facsimile editions as a necessary resource. With an increased openness to period performance practice, many modern violinists prefer to concertize baroque music on the modern violin in a period style. This practice is referred to as HIP, or Historically informed performance.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Compositions for Electric Violin

Tape-bow violin
Laurie Anderson's tape-bow violin, an electronic instrument developed in 1977, resembles an electric violin but does not have strings. It produces sound by drawing a bow, strung with a length of recorded magnetic tape rather than hair, across a magnetic tape head mounted on the instrument where the bridge would normally be. This anticipates the later technique of "scratching" in rap and hip-hop music, where a vinyl recording is turned back and forth on a turntable.

MIDI violin
In the mid 1980s, Zeta Music developed a prototype violin for Laurie Anderson that, through the employment of a custom pickup and a conversion module, sent MIDI data, allowing the violinist to control synthesizers. This design was later refined and turned into a commercial product. Unlike most pickup designs, the Zeta pickup has the ability to output the signal from each string on a separate audio channel. Using a multi-pin cable to their pitch to midi interface, this allows for polyphonic MIDI control with each string set to an independent MIDI channel.

Most recently, Keith McMillen of Keith McMillen Instruments, formally a founder of Zeta Music, announced the 'StringPort' polyphonic string-to-USB 2.0 converter which will connect with the Zeta polyphonic pickup.

Whilst no other dedicated violin-to-MIDI systems have been manufactured, more generic pitch-to-MIDI systems like those from Roland, and Yamaha can be adapted to use standard electric violin output. Most systems allow only monophonic operation—only one pitch can be detected and digitised at a time—but through the use of proprietary pickups, some limited MIDI polyphony can be achieved. Some pitch to MIDI interfaces from Axon/TerraTec will give full per string polyphony, interfacing with the multi-pin output from the Zeta MIDI pickup.

Notable artists who have performed using a MIDI violin include Jean-Luc Ponty, Charles Bisharat, Drew Tretick, Gregory Docenko, and Boyd Tinsley from Dave Matthews Band.

Footnotes
^ http://www.StringAmp.com
^ http://www.barberatransducers.com
^ http://www.nedsteinberger.com/instruments/polar/polar.html

Electric violin

An electric violin is a violin equipped with an electronic output of its sound. The term most properly refers to an instrument purposely made to be electrified with built-in pickups, usually with a solid body. It can also refer to a standard violin fitted with an electric pickup of some type, although "amplified violin" or "electro-acoustic violin" are more accurate in that case.

Electrically amplified violins have been used in one form or another since the 1920s; jazz and blues artist Stuff Smith is generally credited as being one of the first performers to adapt pickups and amplifiers to violins. The Electro Stringed Instrument Corporation, National Valco and Vega attempted to sell electric violins in the 1930s and 1940s; Fender produced a small number of electric violins in the late 1950s.

Acoustic violins may be used with an add-on piezoelectric bridge or body pickup. To avoid feedback from the resonances of the hollow body under high amplification on stage, many instruments have a solid body instead. The timbre (tone color) of a standard unamplified violin is due in large part to these resonances, however, so depending on how the signal is picked up, an electric violin may have a "rawer" or "sharper" sound than an acoustic instrument. This raw sound is often preferred in rock, pop, and some avant-garde genres. Several "semi-hollow" designs exist, containing a sealed but hollow resonating chamber that provides some approximation of acoustic violin sound while reducing susceptibility to feedback.

Solid-body electric violins typically have a non-traditional, minimalistic design to keep weight down since they are manufactured from wood. Lately, materials such as kevlar, glass and carbon fibres, are used in the build process.
They are often seen as "experimental" instruments, being less established than electric guitar or bass. Hence, there are many variations on the standard design, such as frets, extra strings, machine heads, "baritone" strings that sound an octave lower than normal, and sympathetic strings.

Acoustic 5-string violins exist, but it is much more common for an electric violin to have 5, 6 or 7 strings than an acoustic instrument. The typical solid body also accommodates the extra tension caused by more strings without stressing the instrument too much. The extra strings are usually a low C string for 5-strings, a low C and low F for 6, and a low C, F and B♭ for 7.

Electric violin signals usually pass through electronic processing, in the same way as an electric guitar, to achieve a desired sound. This could include delay, reverb, chorus, distortion, or other effects.

Violin concerto

A violin concerto is a concerto for solo violin (occasionally, two or more violins) and instrumental ensemble, customarily orchestra. Such works have been written since the Baroque period, when the solo concerto form was first developed, up through the present day. Many major composers have contributed to the violin concerto repertoire, with the best known works including those by Bach, Bartók, Beethoven, Brahms, Bruch, Mendelssohn, Mozart, Paganini, Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Sibelius, Tchaikovsky, and Vivaldi. Traditionally a three-movement work, the violin concerto has been structured in four movements by a number of modern composers, including Dmitri Shostakovich, Igor Stravinsky, and Alban Berg (in the latter, the first two and last two movements are connected, with the only break coming between the second and third). In some violin concertos, especially from the Baroque and modern eras, the violin (or group of violins) is accompanied by a chamber ensemble rather than an orchestra—for instance, Vivaldi's L'estro armonico, originally scored for four violins, two violas, cello, and continuo, and Allan Pettersson's first concerto, for violin and string quartet.

Violin concerto

A violin concerto is a concerto for solo violin (occasionally, two or more violins) and instrumental ensemble, customarily orchestra. Such works have been written since the Baroque period, when the solo concerto form was first developed, up through the present day. Many major composers have contributed to the violin concerto repertoire, with the best known works including those by Bach, Bartók, Beethoven, Brahms, Bruch, Mendelssohn, Mozart, Paganini, Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Sibelius, Tchaikovsky, and Vivaldi. Traditionally a three-movement work, the violin concerto has been structured in four movements by a number of modern composers, including Dmitri Shostakovich, Igor Stravinsky, and Alban Berg (in the latter, the first two and last two movements are connected, with the only break coming between the second and third). In some violin concertos, especially from the Baroque and modern eras, the violin (or group of violins) is accompanied by a chamber ensemble rather than an orchestra—for instance, Vivaldi's L'estro armonico, originally scored for four violins, two violas, cello, and continuo, and Allan Pettersson's first concerto, for violin and string quartet.

Stroh violin

A Stroh violin, or violinophone, or horn-violin is a violin that amplifies its sound through a metal resonator and metal horns rather than a wooden sound box as on a standard violin. The instrument is named after its German designer, Johannes Matthias Augustus Stroh, who patented it in 1899.

In the 20th century many types of horn-violins have been devised, especially in the Balkans.
Contents
1 Description and Background
2 Current Usage
3 Rumanian horn-violin
4 External links
//
Description and Background

Stroh violins are much louder than a standard wooden violin, and the directional projection of sound made the Stroh violin particularly useful in the early days of phonographic recording. As regular violins recorded poorly with the old acoustic-mechanical recording method, Stroh violins were common (though by no means universal) in recording studios. After record companies switched to the new electric microphone recording technology in the second half of the 1920s, Stroh violins became less common. While the Stroh produces significantly more volume, it does this at the expense of tone, offering a sound that is harsher and more grating than a standard violin. On early records the Stroh violin can be recognized by its characteristically thin whining tone.

The Stroh violin was an expensive instrument; in 1911 it was offered by the London dealers Barnes & Mullins for nine guineas (£9.45, then equal to $37.80) or twelve guineas (£12.60 / $50.40) at a time when a reasonable factory violin could be had for two guineas. It was listed as being especially suitable for use in small theaters and music-halls. There was also a Stroh viola.

Current Usage
A few musicians, including Tom Waits, Carla Kihlstedt, Thomas Newman, Bat For Lashes, and Bob Cohen for the Klezmer and múm, and Fabrice Martinez with Fishtank Ensemble continue to use the Stroh violin for its distinctive sound.
The Stroh violin is also an instrument used in folk music of the Bihor region of Romania. Famous musicians of this music style are fiddlers like Gheorghe Rada, singers like Florica Bradu, Florica Ungur, Florica Duma, Leontin Ciucur, Cornel Borza, Vasile Iova, Maria Haiduc, Viorica Flintasu, and renowned folk ensembles like "Crisana" or "Rapsozii Zarandului". In Buenos Aires (Argentina) back in the 1920s, Julio De Caro (renowned Tango orchestra director and violinist) used it on his live performances, and was called "violin corneta" (cornet violin) by the locals.

Rumanian horn-violin
An interesting variant on the Stroh violin is the Rumanian horn-violin that has been built far into the 20th century. It has the same length as the Stroh violin (and of course of the normal violin) but its horn is narrower and yields a more directional sound.

The structure of the instrument is based on the element of an old-fashioned gramophone and could for that reason easily be built by amateurs or small workshops. There exist therefore in Eastern Europe many variants of this peculiar instrument.
The vibrations of strings and bridge are transmitted by a thin rod to the membrane of the gramophone element. The membrane transfers these vibrations into sound waves which are amplified by the horn or the beaker. The instrument is more difficult to play than a normal violin: (1) the reaction of the bow on the strings is less flexible and (2) the weight of the instrument on the shoulder is less well-balanced than with a normal violin.


The instrument is still in use in Rumanian folk-music for playing hora’s and doina’s and it mixes well with the characteristic sound of the pan-flute. Its individual tone is a welcome alternative for the sound of a Rumanian folk-music orchestra. It shall, however, sparsely be used as the grating tone may after a while become irritating. Instruments like the Stroh violin and other types of horn-violin remain a curiosity, they are no full-fledged orchestral instruments.

Violin making and maintenance

Sound post adjustment
Main article: Sound post

The position of the sound post inside the violin is critical, and moving it by very small amounts can make a substantial difference in the sound quality and loudness of an instrument. Soundpost adjustment is as much art as science, depending on the ears, experience, structural sense, and sensitive touch of the luthier. Moving the sound post has very complex consequences on the sound; in the end, it is the ear of the person doing the adjusting that determines the desired location of the post.

As a rough guide of how the sound post influences the sound output of the violin there are a few positions that can help find the right spot:

If the sound is too thin and shrill, the post may be too near the f hole or too tight or possibly the post is too thin. If the sound is weak and there is a loss of power (especially on the lower register), the post may be too near the center of the instrument. If the sound is chocked, the post may be to near the bridge foot or under it. If there is a loss of overall power and tone, the post may be too far behind the bridge or possibly the post is too thick.

Violin making and maintenance

Maintenance

With careful maintenance, a violin can last and improve for many years. A well-tended violin can outlive many generations of players, so it is wise to take a curatorial view when caring for a violin. Most importantly, if the collected rosin dust is not wiped from the varnish, and left for long enough, it will fuse with the varnish, and become impossible to remove without damage.

Cleaning the rosin off strings can make a striking difference to the sound. A common wine cork serves admirably, quietly scrubbing off the crust of rosin without damaging the winding of the string. A dry microfiber cloth is often recommended; it retains the dust well, but makes a penetrating squeaking noise. A cloth with a little rubbing alcohol is effective, if care is taken to protect the top from the slightest chance of stray droplets of alcohol touching the varnish. The use of alcohol is generally avoided, as it easily damages violin varnish in ways which may be difficult or impossible to restore.

The tuning pegs may occasionally be treated with "peg dope" when they either slip too freely, causing the string to go flat or slack, or when they stick, making tuning difficult. "Peg drops" (a solution of rosin in alcohol) may occasionally be used to treat slipping pegs, but that is a temporary solution at best; quite often slipping pegs have shafts which are no longer smoothly conical, and should be refitted or replaced.

The violin will benefit from occasional checks by a technician, who will know if repairs need to be made.

Violinists generally carry replacement sets of strings with their instruments to have a spare available in case one breaks. Even before breaking, worn strings may begin to sound tired and to become "false" over time, producing an unreliable pitch. Another common problem with strings is unravelling of the metal winding. Strings may need replacement every two or three months with frequent use. The higher strings require replacement more frequently than the lower strings – fortunately higher strings cost less. The price of strings varies, and the quality of the strings strongly influences the timbre of the sound produced. A teacher can advise students how often to change strings, as it depends on how much and how seriously one plays.

For the bow, the only real maintenance is regular cleaning of the stick with a cloth, and re-hairing. In the course of playing the violin, hairs are often lost from the bow, making it necessary to have it rehaired periodically, which is done by professionals at roughly the cost of a new set of strings. The old horse hair is replaced with new hair. Other maintenance may include replacing the wire lapping and leather grip, or lubricating the screw. Large cracks and breakages in the bow are usually fatal; they cannot be repaired like the body of the instrument can. A bow which has warped and is no longer straight can sometimes be bent back to true or re-cambered, but this must be done with heat by a craftsman, and it is not always successful or worthwhile.

Loosening the hair when the bow is not being used helps keep the bow from becoming "sprung," or losing its camber, and the hair from becoming stretched. There are now bows available made from fiberglass or carbon composite which are less fragile.

Violin making and maintenance

Making violins

A new violin scroll being carved.The outer contour of a new violin, one of the more important aspects of the instrument, is designed by the violin maker, and today the outlines of the old masters' violins are usually used. Different methods of violin making include using an inside mould, an outside mould, or building "on the back" without a mould.

The "inside mould" approach starts with a set of plans, which include a drawing of the outer shape of the instrument. From these plans a template is constructed, which can be made from thin metal or other materials, and is a flat "half-violin" shape. The template is used to construct a mould, which is a violin-shaped piece of wood, plywood, MDF or similar material approximately 12 mm or 1/2" thick.

Around the mould are built the sides (or ribs), which are flat pieces of wood curved by means of careful heating. The completed "garland" of ribs, blocks, and linings is removed from the mould to allow attachment of the separately carved top and back. When the body is complete, the neck, which is carved out of a separate piece of wood (usually maple), is set in its mortise to complete the basic structure of the instrument, after which it is varnished.

Violin taken down, showing soundpost.Vital to the sound and playability of the instrument is setup, which includes adjusting the neck angle if needed, fitting the pegs so they turn smoothly and hold firmly, dressing the fingerboard to the proper scooped shape, fitting the soundpost and bridge, adjusting the tailgut and installing the tailpiece, and stringing up. A removable chinrest may be put on at this time.Then the instrument begins the "playing-in" process, as its parts adjust to the string tension. The sound of a violin is said to "open up" in the first weeks and months of use, a process which continues more gradually over the years.

Violin making and maintenance

Making an instrument of the violin family may be done in different ways, many of which have changed very little in nearly 500 years since the first violins were made. Some violins, called "bench-made" instruments, are made by a single individual, either a master maker, or an amateur working alone. Several people may participate in the making of a "shop-made" instrument, working under the supervision of a master. Various levels of "trade violin" exist, often mass-produced by workers who each focus on a small part of the overall job, with or without the aid of machinery.

"Setting up" a violin is generally considered to be a separate activity, and may be done many times over the lengthy service life of the instrument. Setup includes fitting and trimming tuning pegs, surfacing the fingerboard, carving the soundpost and bridge, adjusting the string spacing and action height, and other tasks related to putting the finished instrument into playing condition and optimizing its voice and response.

Violin maintenance goes on as long as the instrument is to be kept in playing condition, and includes tasks such as replacing strings, positioning the soundpost and bridge, lubricating pegs and fine tuners, resurfacing the fingerboard, attending to the instrument's finish, and restoring or replacing parts of the violin or its accessories which have suffered wear or damage.

Basic physics of the violin

The distinctive sound of a violin is the result of interactions between its many parts. Drawing a bow across the strings causes them to vibrate. This vibration is transmitted through the bridge and sound post to the body of the violin (mainly the top and back), which allows the sound to effectively radiate into the air. The tension and type of strings, the bow, and the construction of the body all contribute to the loudness and tonal quality of the sound.

Strings
The strings of a violin are stretched across the bridge and nut of the violin so that the ends are stationary, allowing for the creation of standing waves. Standing waves will take on a specific value according to the properties of the string. The frequency and harmonics of these standing waves can be adjusted by changing the properties of the string, such as the tension, length, and material it is made from.

Tension
Tension affects the sound a violin produces in an obvious way. Increasing the tension on a string results in a higher frequency note. The strings of a violin are mounted to a fixed base, called the tail piece, and wrapped around adjustable pegs. A violin is tuned by turning each peg to loosen or tighten the string until it produces the desired frequency. Increasing tension causes the sound waves to travel faster through the string. The frequency, wavelength, and velocity of a vibrating string are related by the equation

Because the length of the violin, which determines the wavelength of the sound waves, is constant, an increase in tension will cause a proportional change in the frequency. Adjusting the tension of the strings is how a violin is tuned. This effect can be heard prior to any concert performance as each instrumentalist adjusts the tension until the frequency matches a reference sound, usually 440Hz.

Length
The length of the string also influences the frequency of the string, and is the basis for how a violin is played. Violinists shorten the playing length of the string by pushing it against the fingerboard of the violin with a finger. This has the effect of shortening the length of the waves produced by the string. Returning to the above equation, only now assuming velocity is constant (the change in tension from pressing the string is negligibly small for this discussion), shortening the length of the string will result in a higher-frequency note. Another way to view the mechanics of this is to visualize the waves as traveling through the string, bouncing back and forth at a certain speed. If the distance the wave must travel is shortened, the wave will be able to make more trips in a given amount of time. The frequency of sound is measured by how many complete vibration cycles (hertz, formerly "cycles per second") the wave makes in one second.

Materials
The material that makes up the string will also affect the quality of the note produced. A vibrating string is not a single frequency. Any frequency that is an integer multiple of the longest standing wave can vibrate on the string. These higher frequencies are called harmonics. Harmonics do not change the frequency of the note. They change the timbre. The characteristics of harmonics on a violin can be changed by using different materials.

Violin strings are played under a tension of about 220 newtons (50 lbf). Violin strings were originally made from catgut because of its high tensile strength. Modern strings are now made of steel or synthetic materials, though gut (sheep gut is actually the source) is still used. Gut strings are sensitive to changes in temperature and humidity; their tension will change, requiring frequent re-tuning. Synthetic strings are much less susceptible to environmental changes and produce a more consistent, if less expressive, sound.

Bridge
The shape of the bridge itself is also important. As the violin has developed, the shape of the bridge has been determined by trial and error. The amplitude (loudness) of the note is altered by how the vibrations are channeled through the bridge. A violin maker aims on making a bridge which will transmit the most vibrational energy from the strings to the body. A thinner bridge transmits sound more efficiently, but is structurally weaker. The openings in the bridge (the "heart" and "kidneys") reduce weight, and provide an arrangement of masses and "springs" that filter and shape the timbre of the sound. A thin bridge is characterized as having a light, less expressive sound, and was most popular during the baroque period. Modern violins use a heavier bridge to accommodate a wider range of dynamics.[citation needed]

The bridge must be strong because it also serves as structural support to the strings. As it holds the strings, it transfers the tension force from the strings to the body. By tightening the string, the applied force on the bridge is increased. The applied force exerted on the bridge is spread out on the face of the violin. This helps to ensure that the violin will not snap when the tension is increased. Modern violins typically show a string break angle over the bridge of 158°.

Bow
Sound on a violin is generally produced by a bow. The bow is made of flexible wood with a hank of horse hair connecting either end. The type of wood and the hair can change the sound of the instrument as well. The hair is coated with rosin, a pitchy resin that makes the string sticky. Sound is made when the violinist creates enough friction between the hair and the string by means of pressure placed on the bow to pull the string along the direction of the bow's travel. The force pulling the string back will eventually become greater than the force from the bow. When this happens, the string quickly recoils back toward its natural position. This causes vibrations to travel up and down the violin string. This can be observed by slowly drawing a bow across the string. By carefully drawing the bow across the string, one can also produce a continuous note. Displacing the string further will cause higher amplitude vibrations -- more sound. Describing the process mathematically, the force the bow exerts on the string can be approximated by the relationship

Where μ is the coefficient of friction for a given material, and n is the force of the bow pressing down on the string. The force the string exerts as it is stretched can be described using hooke's law,
where k is a coefficient measuring the stiffness of the spring (or in our case, the stretchiness of the string) and x is the distance the string has been pulled by the bow. Sound is generated at the precise instant when the restoring force of the spring overcomes the frictional force of the bow. If at that point, the forces are the same:
Changing the amount of rosin on the bow affects how sticky it is, which determines μ. During the course of a recital, this would stay essentially constant. Because the string is stretched a very small amount compared to its total length, k is also constant. This leaves the relationship
The displacement x, or how far the string gets pulled determines how loud the sound is. A violinist can change the volume of play by adjusting the normal force of the bow. Pressing harder on the string increases the frictional force, which causes the string to displace more, which results in a higher-amplitude sound wave.

Featured Violin Books

The Complete Guide to Making More Money in the Private Music Studio Mimi Butler

Covers all aspects of the private studio: marketing, scheduling, billing, policies for make-ups, recitals and mentoring.

Rosindust: Teaching, Learning and Life from a Cellist's PerspectiveCornelia Watkins

Violins and ViolinistsFranz Farga

Violin MasteryInterviews with renowned violinists[Free online]

The Cambridge Companion to the Violin (Cambridge Companions to Music)

Violin VirtuososStrings Backstage


Principles of Violin Playing & Teaching
Ivan Galamian

The Athletic MusicianBarbara Paull
A guide to playing the violin without pain

Recommended Violin Study Guides

• 
  Studying Music History, 2nd ed., David Poultney
• 
  The Elements of Music, Vol. 1, Ralph Turek
• 
  The Elements of Music, Vol. 2, Ralph Turek
• 
  A History of Western Music, Sixth Edition, Donald J. Grout, Claude V. Palisca.
• 
  Norton Recorded Anthology of Western Music: Ancient to Baroque (6-CD set), Donald J. Grout.
• 
  Norton Recorded Anthology of Western Music : Classic to Modern (6-CD set), Donald J. Grout.
• 
  Study and Listening Guide for Concise History of Western Music and Norton Anthology of Western Music, J. Peter Burkholder.
• 
  Outlines of Grout History of Wesstern Music
• 
  Scale-Studies for the Violin (Schirmer's Library of Musical Classics, Volume 842), Johann Hrimaly.
• 
  Sixty Studies Opus 45, Franz Wohlfahrt.
• 
  Forty Studies For Violin, Herbert Chang.
• 
  Daily Scale Exercises for Violin, Herbert Chang.
• 
  Scale System : Scale Exercises in All Major and Minor Keys for Daily Study, Carl Flesch.
• 
  Art of Violin Playing: Book One, Carl Flesch. New translation by Eric Rosenblith.
• 
  Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching, Ivan Galamian.
• 
  Art of Practicing the Violin: With Useful Hints for All String Players, Robert Gerle.
• 
  The Art of Bowing Practice/3.3398: The Expressive Bow Technique, Robert Gerle.
• 
  Orchestral Excerpts, Carolyn Rabson.
• 
  The History of Violin Playing from Its Origins to 1761 and Its Relationship to the Violin and Violin Music, David D. Boyden.
• 
  Violin Playing As I Teach It, Leopold Auer.
• 
  Early Recordings and Musical Style : Changing Tastes in Instrumental Performance, 1900-1950, Robert Philip.
• 
  String playing in Baroque music, Robert Donington.
• 
  A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing (Early Music Series, 6), Leopold Mozart.
• 
  The Great Violinists, Margaret Campbell.
• 
  Great masters of the violin: From Corelli and Vivaldi to Stern, Zukerman, and Perlman , Boris Schwarz.
• 
  Violin Virtuosos: From Paganini to the 21st Century, Henry Roth.

Other Highly Recommended Books for Violinists

• 
  Great Masters of the Violin by Boris Schwarz; Fireside Publishing
• 
  The Violin Hunter by William Alexander Silverman; Paganiniana Publishing
• 
  The art of Practicing the Violin by Robert Gerle; J. W. Pepper & Son
• 
  String Syllabus, ASTA, David A. Littrell, Editor
• 
  The Musician’s Survival Manual: A Guide to Preventing and Treating Injuries in Instrumentalists, by Richard Norris; International Conference of Symphony and Opera Musicians (ICSOM)
• 
  While others slept, by Florence Nightengale?
• 
  The Amadeus Book of the Violin
• 
  The 50 Greatest Composers and Their 1,000 Greatest Works Phil G. Goulding

Audition Tips

Getting ready to do an audition? Need some fresh audition ideas to get you started? The Violin Site has asked audition expert Jeff Nelsen to provide you with some free audition advice! Your first auditions are always the hardest, but if you follow these suggestions, you'll be able to audition like a pro. Even though these tips are written specifically for instrumental audions, the ideas apply to singing auditions and acting auditions as well.

Fearless Audition
Make the Decision Easy for Them
Deciding What to Do

Jeff Nelsen is Associate Professor of Horn at Jacobs School of Music at Indiana University. Previously Jeff was the hornist for the Canadian Brass. For more info, visit www.jeffnelsen.com